Peer groups dominate adolescent life

Peer groups dominate adolescent life There is so much change in society today, however the fundamental tasks of growing up still exist. An adolescent seeks to find a place in a valued group to have a sense of belonging, to identify and master skills that are recognized of having value and earn the respect to cope with them, to acquire some self-worth and to develop relationships with others. Adolescents have an enormous amount of pressure today and seek a place of acceptance. Peer groups are a place where adolescents can find that sense of belonging, negatively or positively. We each know from experience how compelling peer groups are. It is almost impossible to go against a peer group, whose rules are to conform or you will be rejected. If one tends to sway they become an outsider or an outcast. For adolescent children who are just learning their way in the world, unsurprisingly they get sunk into peer group rules. For boys their athletic ability, coolness, and physical strength gain them popularity. In girls, as long as they had a beautiful physical appearance and an ability to attract popular boys they gain popularity. Oddly enough if a boy succeeds academically his popularity would decrease and if a girl made good grades that would increase her standing among her peers. Standards of peer groups dominate adolescent life. If your fellow peers listen to a certain genre of music, it is almost inevitable that you will also prefer that kind of music, It is the same for clothing styles, movies, video games and dating styles. Peers can influence you other ways as well, if your peers Adolescent Peer Groups 4 are going off to college and striving in the world, it is more than likely you will be also. However, if your peers are using drugs, drinking alcohol, lying, stealing, you are also likely to do so. At an early age, children become less dependent on their parents and caretakers. Children become self-reliant and begin to prefer playing with their friends. At first, play is a time of independence, however later children interact with one another, modify one anothers behavior and exchange roles in play. At the school age period of development social interactions begin to follow set patterns and become more frequent. They participate in games with more rules. The play is more then just entertainment but a way to mature in social interactions with others. Play allows children to think of others, their thoughts and feelings. Social interaction does allow children to interpret others behavior and how to respond to different situations. Children learn physical and emotion self control too. When a child losses at a game, for instance, they learn to avoid hitting their playmate. (McWhirter, Newman 2007) Social interactions are healthy. Situations that provide an opportunity for a child to grow socially may enhance their social development. Through the developmental childhood years and adolescence, peer groups play an important role. Parents have a crucial influence on whether a child plays a negative or positive role in peer groups. If a family is not close or unsupportive, a peer group will become of more importance. If a childs parents work long hours, and rarely see their child, this can cause the child to look for emotional Adolescent Peer Groups 5 support within a peer group. Also, if a child is constantly arguing with his parents, this may drive them away for emotional support. Children and adolescents show no discrimination when finding a peer group. As long as the child feels some sort of acceptance they will join a peer group, even if illegal and negative activity occur within the group. A common antisocial, organized peer group is a gang. Youths in gangs is not a new concept in the United States. Gangs have been present since the 1800s. In 1791 the city of Philadelphia had a problem with adolescents roaming and disrupting the city. New York City has acknowledged gang activity as early as 1825. (Focus Adolescent Services) Unfortunately, gangs will always be around or at least hard to eliminate. Gang involvement is full of youths who come from broken families due to alcohol or drugs, financial burdens and broken relationships. Gang affiliation is more important then anything else for the adolescent because the gang creates a family image taking away all feelings of abandonment and isolation. Being in a gang provides adolescents with acceptance and security which is not provided from home or other peer groups. There are signs that a teen has been introduced to a negative peer group. If the teen no longer spends time with his old friends and hangs out with a new group of friends. If there is a drop in his grades at school or even skips classes, if there is a change in appearance, mannerisms or the child seems withdrawn and secretive. Phone calls at odd times and if a teen wants to go places that was Adolescent Peer Groups 6 never an interest to him before could all be signs of having negative peer group membership. A parent should have non-judgmental talks, encourage other interests, show love and support and to get help if grades are dropping. A parent should not ignore the problem at all. Make sure a parent introduces himself to friends and parents and do not restrict the teen from seeing friends. Forbidding contact with other teens will only attract the teen to want to see them more often. Peer groups can have a positive effect on adolescents also. Positive peer relationships have an effect on a childs academic motivation and performance, emotional well-being and their overall state of mind. A positive peer group member has a less likelihood of being bullied or harassed. In such a peer group children will look out for one another and they simply do not participate in such behaviors that are verbally or physically abusive. There are key principles that can promote an adolescent to steer towards positive peer groups. Making sure a youth has leadership, attends and participates in positive youth activities. Civic involvement and engaging in every element of the community; school , church, and home. (Find Youth Info) Adults and adolescents can work together and frame our communities. Preventing an adolescent from joining negative peer groups and having more positive roles with peers can occur with some key environmental factors. Any youth program can integrate factors so our youth develop positive development skills. Structure, creating the opportunity where youth can engage Adolescent Peer Groups 7 in healthy relationships, creating a respectful environment to implement diversity and culture in activities, having opportunities to explore workforce and personal goal settings, and creating an environment where adolescents can have a sense of belonging are key factors. More importantly, programs should develop ways to involve parents in considering the above factors in programs. Society has created adolescence, it is a social invention. Adolescents create their own subcultures with distinctive apparel, hairstyles, and music. In this industrialized world, adolescents must make an identity for themselves. Being that society is a social creation, it is a contemporary society, not a biological age, that makes the adolescent years a time of turmoil. ( Henslin, 2003) Peer groups assist children in becoming healthy adults. Having a reduction in risk and an increase of resiliency along with positive relationships can create positivity in our youth. Parents and communities have the power to play an active, loving and supportive role in our youths lives to steer them in a positive direction into young adulthood. We as a society can join together to make adolescence a period of positivity instead of negativity. Adolescent Peer Groups 8

Blood Ties and Families Essay

Many social scientists reject the idea that ‘families can be defined only by blood ties. ’ Discuss. The Oxford Dictionary meaning of family is noun (plural families) 1 [treated as singular or plural] a group consisting of two parents and their children living together as a unit. There are many different ideas about what makes a family, and is this idea of what a family is universal and the children’s perspectives. There is a lot of debate with social scientists about the family. Functionalists say that the term family is a universal institution performing functions for society’s survival. Sociologist Murdock suggest that each family has for functions in order to be classified as a family. They are, a common residence, however there are many cases in which families do not share a common residence for example if a child is at boarding school or a parent is in the armed forces. (Murdock, cited by Gittins, D, p. 2). (Gutman 1976) found that it was common among black slave families in the USA for a husband and wide to live on different plantations and see one another for a few hours once or twice a week. Soliende de Gonzalez cited by gittins) found this type of household very common in black Carib society: â€Å"there are groupings which I have called â€Å"dispersed families† in which the father, even though he is absent for long periods of time he still retains ultimate authority over a household for which he provides the only support, and where affective bonds continue to be important between him and his wife and his children†. (Mudock cited by Gittins p. ) next family function is economic co-operation, it’s a broad term and can encompass a wide range of activities such as sleeping and cooking, it occurs between households as well as between individuals within the household (Murdock cited by Gittins p. 4) third is his definition of sexuality is heterosexuality, even though this is only one of many forms of sexuality. They say that this is the most important function of a family because it leads to reproduction. He also suggests that they get pressured into thi nking that’s heterosexuality is a ‘socially approved relationship’ between two adults. However there are critisms of Murdock as he doesn’t take into account the diversity of the ways in which co-residence, economic relations, sexuality and reproduction. Many sociologists say that they are simply western values and ideas of what a family should be like and assume that everyone will agree. (Jessie Bernard 1973 cited by Gittins pg. 3) Another criticism is that families do not need adults of both sexes, or a heterosexual couple, as same sex couples can adopt or can use medical advances (e. . IVF or surrogacy) to become a biological parent. (Edholm 1982 cited by Gittins p. 4) Anthropologists prefer to use the term kinship rather than family, â€Å"the ties which exist between individuals who are seen as related both through birth (descent) and through mating (marriage). † This theory is concerned with the ways in which parentage us assigned, attributed and recognised, descent is traced, relatives are classified, rights are transferred across generations and gr oups are formed. Unlike the functionalist approach the kinship theory stresses the fact that kinship is a social construction and also it emphasises on the variability of kinship depending on how it is defined. There is a debate about whether kinship is biological or social, many of us believe that its biological because of we know who are parents are and they made us so we simply think that kinship is biological but there are cases where children are brought up by parents who they believe to be their biological parents and then find out that they have been adopted and then suffer an identity crises because they do not know who they are anymore. Their own suffering is caused by the ways in which we define kinship in society and there is a clear difference between a ‘biological’ and ‘social’ parents, we see the biological parent as the real parents and that has the strongest bonds with the child, this is a strong western belief. However in other cultures they believe that it is the person who rears the child is defined as the parent regardless who is involved in the reproductive process, for example in some cultures it is common for a child to be raise by a grandparent. ( R. T. Smith cited by Gittins p. ) fond this was common in Guyana and Jamaica and says that ‘close and imperishable bonds are formed through the ‘act’ of raising a child. Fictive kinship (Rapp 1980:292 cited by Gittins p5) stated that fictive kinship was a serious relationship, and how we turn friends into family. It was also argued that kinship is whatever we chose it to be whether that’s biological, social or fictive, it’s a way of identifying others as in some way special from the rest, people to whom the individual or collectively feel responsible in certain ways. Many anthropologists have argued that kinship is simply a system of meaning and symbols, they also state that animals reproduce, mate and form attachments but they do not have a kinship system. (Marx cited by Gittins p 5) argued that it distinguishes people from animals. In child birth motherhood is always known unlike fatherhood, however apart from carrying and giving birth to the child that is where the biological process stops the rest become socially constructed. Gender also affects the ways that kinship is constructed and defined, they are both universally present as mothers and children are but the content of them and the meanings ascribed to them is highly variable. Age is also an important fact when it comes to kinship as people grow up the household composition and resources change. All relationships are different and with society changing there has become many different norms of society. Families do not have to be blood ties or even live under the same roof all the time or have two sec parents. Family isn’t universal.

Essay Samples for Gmat for Dummies

Essay Samples for Gmat for Dummies Facts, Fiction and Essay Samples for Gmat Notice that there's no correct or wrong answer here. The very first question may be tough. Answering such a question would ask that you introspect. Discover how to craft the ideal answer. If You Read Nothing Else Today, Read This Report on Essay Samples for Gmat Rather than that, you may also come up with two extremely long and comprehensive body paragraphs also. This section tests how well it's possible to take advantage of your analytical skills to fix a complicated issue. Consequently, it can be said that you should take soy foods for total well-being. You should have your reasons, and our principal concern is that you wind up getting an excellent grade. Understanding Essay Samples for Gmat Although this argument appears reasonable, it's nevertheless unacceptable to embrace the trustworthiness of this argument after careful scrutiny. The job is to assess the grammar, logic, and effectivenes s of a certain sentence and to opt for the best of several suggested revisions. When the thesis is completed, you can decide to acknowledging the other side. Get to be aware of the common flaws, which means you recognize them quickly on test day! Though even the very best essay checker software cannot match the truth of the official test, it's still a great way to understand where you stand. If the two scores differ by less than 1 point, both scores will be averaged to receive your final scaled score. During the test, you're going to be asked to reply in. If you want, have a mock test to observe where you stand. The very first step you will have to do in your paragraph is identify what portion of the argument you plan to analyze. There is an immense difference between 9 and 31. Others, obviously, scoff at the idea since they're. A great balance of simple and elaborate sentences is utilized to develop an argument. Things You Won't Like About Essay Samples for Gmat and T hings You Will Essays are a really important portion of the application process, states Stacy Blackman, an MBA admissions consultant. Learn what Wharton searching for in the MBA essay and the way it is possible to write an effective one to increase your odds of gaining admission. MBA essays are a vital component of your application package. An MBA admissions essay is a significant portion of the MBA admissions process. Essay Samples for Gmat - Is it a Scam? There's, obviously, a limit on the variety of pages even our finest writers can produce with a pressing deadline, but usually, we can satisfy all the clients seeking urgent assistance. The most often encountered topics relate to general company and public policy difficulties. The audio chair also cites a rise in job openings in the area of music-therapy. If You Read Nothing Else Today, Read This Report on Essay Samples for Gmat GMAT AWA essay samples are among the most effective ways to learn ways to get a great GMAT e ssay score. Week 9 You are now prepared to practise a full GMAT test at the same stretch. One of the absolute most important GMAT essay advice is to understand the directions of the AWA section. Another one of the important GMAT writing ideas is to select the opportunity to prepare your essay in a transparent way. Test-takers should try and plan on gmat the essay a couple of minutes early so they have enough time to carefully review their writing for typos and grammatical errors. Looking at IELTS essay topics with answers is an excellent method that will help you to get ready for the test. The questions are made to place your math skills to test. Data sufficiency is a distinctive sort of math question created particularly for the GMAT. Since you can see from the sample paragraph, there's a lot to accomplish in a quick quantity of time. This conclusion is much too strong, and thus the request for funding isn't well justified. While applying, you can experience that the application procedure can be taxing. Dissect the argument into various pieces. The essay that you write has to be easy, but interesting. At the outset you should know your GMAT essay is scored separately. Objective Voice The essay shouldn't be written in the very first person. It should not be written in the first per son. Writing both essays in a short period of 30 minutes each can be an intimidating exercise, more so in the event you've not written anything similar since. Although there are a few basic measures to writing an assignment, essay writing isn't a linear approach. It is a good idea to invest a couple of hours in preparation for your essay. The submitted piece is evaluated as an unaffiliated argument essay on the aforementioned attributes.

The Death Of Siddhartha Gautama - 1017 Words

When an average person thinks of Siddhartha Gautama, they often link the religious figure with someone who achieved happiness through various forms of mediation. These generalizations are often fueled by artistic illustrations of the Buddha, which, almost universally, depict him sitting in the Lotus Position. While the religion of Buddhism has deep roots in various forms of meditation, there is not a cut and dry method for an individual to obtain the highest of Buddhist goals, freedom from suffering. In pursuit of this goal, many different schools of Meditation have emerged since the death of Siddhartha Gautama. Each of these schools has developed, what they believe to be, the best method for an individual to reduce their suffering in this world and to follow the noble path of the Buddha. However, while each school will have their own stylistic method, the path towards enlightenment should place emphasis on the practices that an individual deems the best for their needs. Enlightenmen t is defined as to the act of giving intellectual or spiritual light to an individual. In Buddhism, the act of achieving enlightenment and breaking the cycle of rebirth is seen as the highest goal that humanity can achieve. Within Buddhism, the act of meditation is seen as one of the most favorable method for someone to embody the religion’s philosophies. Many people use these forms of meditation in order to work towards enlightenment and personal happiness. The issue, however, of achievingShow MoreRelatedLife Leading Up to Siddhartha Gautamas Awakening Essay1358 Words   |  6 PagesLife Leading Up to Siddhartha Gautamas Awakening It is thought by many that the Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama, was born having this title and did not have to endure any hardships throughout his life. Despite these thoughts, Siddhartha Gautama was not born the Buddha, but had to find his own way to achieve enlightenment and become the Buddha. 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He was born to Ã…Å¡uddhodana, a head chief of the Shaky a tribe, and Maya, a princess. Siddhartha’s father held a naming ceremony for a five day old Siddhartha where eight Brahmin priests predicted that Siddhartha would either be a great holy manRead MoreBuddhism : The Four Noble Truths859 Words   |  4 Pages Originated in India from Siddhartha Gautama, a religion that encompass a variety of beliefs, spiritual practices, and traditions, Buddhism. Some of the spiritual practice of Buddhism have largely based teachings today across the world. The teachings consisted of â€Å"The Eightfold Paths,† â€Å"The Four Noble Truths† and some other breathings or meditations. The religion has taught their followers to shadow their own journey in order to assist them in their own lightning way. 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The Buddha’s birth name was Siddhartha Gautama and he was born as an Indian prince. Gautama was well protected from the poverty and sickness throughout India and was rather surrounded by riches. However at the age of twenty nine Gautama ventured outside ofRead MoreTheology: Overview of Buddhism1327 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction Buddhism is a world religion based on the teachings of Buddha, who was born Siddhartha Gautama in Nepal around 563 B.C.E. and lived in Nepal and India. Siddhartha was a privileged man who withdrew from the world, learned and meditated, and achieved the Enlightenment that made him Buddha. Buddhism has undergone schisms and evolutions but has some core beliefs such as Nirvana, Anatta and Dependent Arising. In addition, the Buddhas teaching centered on the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold

Environmental Sustainability And Ethics Into The Business...

As a manager of a fine dining restaurant in an inner city suburb, I notice that there is an increase in the number of people enquiring about food items featured on the menu. Some are vegetarian; some ask where and how the food is produced, whilst others are celiac or show a high level of concern over the ingredients used in each dish, due to allergies. As a result, there will be a growing trend towards consuming foods based on informed choice. On the other hand, there are also some concerns about the ethics of eating and the provenance of food used on the menu. Hence, I decide that incorporating principles of informed choice and ethics into the business could be a good way to respond to these emerging trends and promote the business as being sustainable, environmentally concerned and ethically responsible. There are some imperative issues that the business ought to consider about: †¢ environmental sustainability †¢ energy conservation †¢ ethical eating †¢ healthy eating and allergies †¢ locavorism and food miles †¢ vegan and vegetarianism †¢ recycling and waste management †¢ free-trade 2.0 Research issues. 2.1 Environmental Sustainability. According to Asner et al (2004), agricultural activities and their complex effects on nature conservation, and the services that ecosystems deliver to humans are controversial. We present an overview of land abandonment, its driving forces and its consequences for landscape, biodiversity and humans. A descriptive met analysis of independentlyShow MoreRelatedInternal And External Factors Affecting Mcdonalds1468 Words   |  6 Pagesis created for McDonald’s. There are various internal and external environmental factors affecting the functions of McDonald’s corporation and demands for new innovations. 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Queer Culture in Southeast Asia Free Essays

When discussing queer culture In modern times, It is automatically classified as a western Idea. Queer Identities and queer struggles are associated with whiteness, as a white concept. This is one of the many causes of colonization, and how in some way it erased the history of oppressed communities. We will write a custom essay sample on Queer Culture in Southeast Asia or any similar topic only for you Order Now However, pre-colonization history indicates that queer culture had been developed within ancient civilizations. If we look at ancient civilizations in Latin America, societies had a different ideology of what ender was, and were open to the idea of same-sex Interactions. It Is no different of Southeast Asia. As we examine several cultures we see that queer culture has a historical context within marginalia communities. The Business people are an ethnic group of South Usualness, which is a providence in Indonesia. Their origins trace back to 2500 BCC as being ancestors to people with an Stationeries background. Gender, for this ethnic group, is seen as fluid. There are five genders within this ethnic group: male, female, Calais, Calais and Bissau. The Business people, like other ethnic groups, believed that male-female Identities helped with the structure of the universe. Thus, ritual specialist exalted androgynous characteristics in order to communicate with spirits. The Bissau, an example of ritual specialist with androgynous characteristics, have the main purpose to give blessings to people, since it is believed that they are possessed by spirits. This ethnic group believes that the Bissau came to be when Bator Guru was sent down to create life in the planet. However, since he was not the best at organizing, so two issue were sent down to help Bator Guru create a culture that would blossom. In this sense. The Business people acknowledge that this culture was created, by two gender non-conforming aides. The Bissau influenced, is also connected to the modern- day Wars of Indonesia. Part of the connection between the Wars and the Bissau is that they are completely different from Western concepts of transgender culture. Even though I was unable to find much history of the Wars, due to geographical location, It makes sense that a connection does exist between the Wars and the Bliss. Bator Guru, a deity In several Indonesian mythologies, Is a Hindu God. This means that this notion of gender fluidity goes back to Hinduism. However, it Is soul extremely difficult to find any history of queer culture before colonization. Third-gender identities are now more evident in modern day and post-colonial times. The Philippines are an example of this, but as mentioned before, to find much history of when they came to be Is an extremely difficult task. Malaysia, and the Make Young Is another example of queer culture Is Southeast Asia. This form of traumatized once Is believed to be almost 1000 years old. Now a days, It Is Just seen as any other regular performance, and its roots from queer culture have been neglected, but it’s known that the Make Young and other communities in Malaysia were mainly made up of gender fluid and queer members. There’s history of queer relationships in the Han Dynasty and Chou Dynasty. Emperor Ai (27 BCC-I CE) and Duke Ling of Wee (534 BCC- 403 BCC), respectively, are example of these cultures. Even though we find these forms of relationships In Ancient South Salsa and East Asia, Southeast Salsa is still hat colonized settlements had been exposed to their own queer culture and queer identities, neglects and oppresses people from those ethnic back grounds, and formulates this idea that within the LIGHT+ community, brown bodies are being saved by colonization, from their â€Å"homophobic† cultures. When thinking of modern day queer culture, and how it intersects with race, I personally think that it’s important to be critical of the history of pre-colonization. Queer identities have been around for years, and they do not belong to western cultures, as we have been taught to believe. How to cite Queer Culture in Southeast Asia, Papers

Cuba nation Report Essay Research Paper INTRODUCTION free essay sample

Cuba ( state Report ) Essay, Research Paper Introduction Cuba, largest island of the West Indies, South of Florida of the United States and E of the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico. It forms, with assorted next islands, the democracy of Cuba. Cuba commands the two entrywaies to the Gulf of Mexico # 8212 ; the Straits of Florida and the Yucatan Channel. On the E, Cuba is separated from the island of Hispaniola by the Windward Passage, a transporting path between the North Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. The United States maintains a naval base at Guantanamo Bay in the sou-east. Havana is Cuba # 8217 ; s capital and largest metropolis. The island extends about 1225 kilometer ( about 760 myocardial infarctions ) from Cabo de San Antonio to Cabo Maisi, the western and eastern appendages, severally. The mean breadth is about 80 kilometers ( about 50 myocardial infarction ) , with extremes runing from 35 to 251 kilometers ( 22 to 160 myocardial infarction ) . The entire country is 114,524 sq kilometer ( 44,218 myocardial infarction ) including the country of the Isla de la Juventud, or Isle of Youth ( once called Isle of Pines ) and of other islands of the democracy. We will write a custom essay sample on Cuba nation Report Essay Research Paper INTRODUCTION or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Land AND RESOURCES About one-quarter of the surface of Cuba is cragged or hilly, the balance consisting of level or turn overing terrain. The cragged countries are scattered throughout the island and do non stem from a cardinal mass. The chief scopes are the Sierra de los Organos, in the West ; the Sierra de Trinidad, in the cardinal portion of the island ; and the Sierra Maestra, in the sou-east. The first two scopes are under 914 m ( 3000 foot ) in tallness ; the Sierra Maestra, which includes the Sierra del Cobre and Macaca scopes, is the greatest in height, mass, and extent, and contains Pico Turquino ( 2000 m/ 6561 foot ) , the highest point in Cuba. Most of the dirt of Cuba is comparatively fertile. One of the extraordinary natural characteristics of the island is the big figure of subsurface limestone caverns, notably the caves of Cotilla, situated near Havana. Most of the legion rivers of Cuba are short and unnavigable. The main watercourse is the Cauto, located in the sou-east. The seashore of Cuba is highly irregular and is indented by legion gulfs and bays ; the entire length is about 4025 kilometer ( about 2500 myocardial infarction ) . The island has a big figure of first-class seaports, the bulk of which are about wholly landlocked. Noteworthy seaports are those of Havana, Cardenas, Bahia Honda, Matanzas, and Neuvitas, on the northern seashore, and Guantanamo, Santiago de Cuba, Cienfuegos, and Trinidad, on the southern seashore. Climate The clime of Cuba is subtropical, the average one-year temperature being 25? C ( 77? F ) . Extremes of heat and comparative humidness, which average 27.2? C ( 81? F ) and 80 per centum, severally, during the summer season, are tempered by the prevailing northeasterly trade air currents. The one-year rainfall norms about 1320 millimeter ( about 52 in ) . More than 60 per centum of the rain falls during the moisture season, which extends from May to October. The island lies in a part on occasion traversed by violent tropical hurricanes during August, September, and October. Natural Resources The land and clime of Cuba favour agribusiness, and the state besides has important mineral militias. Nickel, chrome, Cu, Fe, and manganese sedimentations are the most of import. Sulfur, Co, pyrites, gypsum, asbestos, crude oil, salt, sand, clay, and limestone militias are besides exploited. All subsurface sedimentations are the belongings of the authorities. Plants and Animals Cuba has a broad assortment of tropical flora. Extensive piece of lands in the eastern part of the island are to a great extent forested. The most prevailing species of trees are the thenars, of which Cuba has more than 30 types, including the royal thenars. Other autochthonal vegetations are mahogany, coal black, lignum vitae, cottonwood, logwood, rosewood, cedar pine, mahoe, Passiflora quadrangularis, jaguery, baccy, and citrous fruit trees. Merely two land mammals, the hutia, or cane rat, and the solenodon, a rare insectivore, are known to be autochthonal. The island has legion chiropterans and about 300 species of birds, including the vulture, wild Meleagris gallopavo, quail, finch, chump, macaw, parrakeet, and hummingbird. Among the few reptilians are tortoises, the caiman, and a species of boa that can achieve a length of 3.7 m ( 12 foot ) . More than 700 species of fish and crustaceans are found in Cuban Waterss. Noteworthy among these are land pediculosis pubiss, sharks, garfish, robalo, ronco, eel, mangua, and tuna. Numerous species of insects exist, the most harmful of which are the chigger, a type of flea, and the Anopheless mosquito, carrier of the malaria parasite. Population The Cuban population is made up chiefly of three groups. Approximately 66 per centum of the population is white and chiefly of Spanish descent ; 22 per centum is of assorted racial heritage and 12 per centum is black. Almost all of the people are native-born. More than 75 per centum of the population is classified as urban. The radical authorities, installed in 1959, has by and large destroyed the stiff societal stratification inherited from Spanish colonial regulation. Population Features, Religion, and Language The population of Cuba at the 1981 nose count was 9,723,605 ; the estimated population in 1995 is 11,091,000, giving the state a population denseness of about 97 individuals per sq kilometer ( about 251 per sq myocardial infarction ) . Professed Roman Catholics have declined from more than 70 per centum to about 33 per centum of the population since 1957. Among Protestants, approximately 1 per centum of Cubans, Pentecostalism is the prevailing tradition. About 50 per centum of Cubans consider themselves nonreligious. Spanish is the official linguistic communication of Cuba. Political Divisions and Principal Cities Cuba consists of 14 states and the particular municipality of Isla de la Juventud ( Isle of Youth ) . The capital, largest metropolis, and main port of Cuba is Havana ( population, 1990 estimation 2,119,059 ) . Marianao ( 1981 greater metropolis population, 127,563 ) is a suburb of Havana and a beach resort. Other of import metropoliss and towns and their populations include Santiago de Cuba ( 418,721 ) , a major haven and industrial centre ; Camaguey ( 286,404 ) , an inland transit junction and commercial centre ; Holguin ( 232,770 ) , located in a rich agricultural part ; Guantanamo ( 203,371 ) , a centre for the processing of agricultural merchandises ; Santa Clara ( 197,189 ) ; Cienfuegos ( 125,000 ) ; and Mantanzas ( 115,466 ) . Education School attending is mandatory and free for kids in Cuba between the ages of 6 and 12. During the late sixtiess about 10,000 new schoolrooms were provided in rural countries, going libraries were introduced, and all parochial schools were nationalized. In the early 1990s some 917,889 students attended primary schools, approximately 597,997 pupils were enrolled in secondary schools, and about 314,168 pupils attended proficient schools, instructors colleges, and other schools. The state # 8217 ; s higher educational establishments enrolled about 242,434 pupils ; the largest university was the University of Havana ( 1728 ) . The state # 8217 ; s adult literacy rate exceeds 95 per centum. Culture Cuban civilization is a combination of Spanish and African traditions. The blending of the Spanish guitar and the African membranophone gives Cuban music its most typical signifiers, the rhumba and the boy. Some of its common people music, nevertheless, such as the punto, the zapateo, and the guajira, has been greatly influenced by European music. Noted Cuban authors include the 19th-century poets Gertrudis Gomez de Avellaneda y Arteaga and Julian del Casal and the modern-day novelists Alejo Carpentier and Jose Lezama Lima. The National Library in Havana is the largest in Cuba and contains some 2.2 million volumes. Municipal libraries operate in Havana and the provincial capitals. The National Museum in Havana houses aggregations of both classical and modern art and relics of native civilizations. Other of import museums are the Colonial and Anthropological museums in Havana, the Emilio Bacardi Moreau Museum of natural history and art in Santiago, and the Oscar M. de Rojas Museum in Cardenas. All libraries and museums are under the supervising of the national authorities. In add-on, Cuban metropoliss support a assortment of cultural activities, such as theatre and concert dance. Economy The radical authorities that gained power in 1959 nationalized about 90 per centum of the production industries and some 70 per centum of the farming area of Cuba. Once about 16 per centum of the land was separately owned, while the balance was held in big estates or by big sugar companies. Creditss and subsidies from the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ( USSR ) to Cuba totaled some $ 38 billion between 1961 and 1984 and up to $ 5 billion yearly in the late eightiess. The prostration of the Soviet axis, striping Cuba of its prima assistance givers and trade spouses, dealt a disabling blow to the state # 8217 ; s economic system as the 1990s began. In 1993 President Fidel Castro signed a edict leting some free endeavor in more than 100 trades and services. Agribusiness Cuba usually ranks among the universe leaders in sugar production, and sugar cane is its largest harvest by volume and value. In the early 1990s the one-year sugar cane crop was about 58 million metric dozenss, and natural sugar end product was about 8 million metric dozenss. A reemphasis on sugar production in the late sixtiess represented a displacement from an earlier policy of rapid industrialisation designed to diversify the economic system. A 2nd harvest of commercial importance is baccy, grown particularly in Pinar del Rio Province. Production amounted to about 40,000 metric dozenss yearly in the early 1990s ; a significant part of the harvest is manufactured into Havana cigars, an internationally popular merchandise. Among other of import agricultural merchandises are java, citrous fruit fruit, Ananas comosuss, rice, chocolate tree beans, bananas, maize, plantains, cotton, murphies, tomatoes, and sweet peppers. Cattle, which numbered about 5 million caput in the early 1990s, are valuable farm animal, and pigs, Equus caballuss, domestic fowl, sheep, and caprine animals are besides raised in important Numberss. Mining and Fabrication Minerals were among the most valuable exports of Cuba before the revolution of 1959. Mineral production, nevertheless, has since declined slightly. The chief minerals recovered include Nis and Cu ores, Cr, salt, Co, rock, petroleum crude oil, natural gas, and Mns. In the early 1970s, Cuba undertook a plan of mechanization in its of import sugar industry. The dairy and cattle industries were besides streamlined. Other major industries include cement, steel, refined crude oil, gum elastic and baccy merchandises, processed nutrient, fabrics, vesture, footwear, chemicals, and fertiliser. Currency and Foreign Trade The pecuniary unit of Cuba is the peso ( .76 pesos equal U.S. $ 1 ; 1994 ) , issued by the National Bank and composed of 100 centavos. All Cuban Bankss were nationalized in 1960. Sugar and sugar merchandises make up approximately 75 per centum of one-year Cuban exports. Tobacco, Ni and Cu ores, groceries, and crude oil merchandises are other of import export trade goods. Major imports include groceries, fuel, natural industrial stuffs, motor vehicles, machinery, and consumer goods. Before 1959 most Cuban trade was with the United States. In 1960 the United States declared a complete trade stoppage on trade between the two states. In the early 1990s Cuba # 8217 ; s main trade spouses were Argentina, Bulgaria, China, and the states of the former USSR. Cuba # 8217 ; s entire imports each twelvemonth cost about $ 1.7 billion, and its exports earned about $ 1.5 billion. In 1995 Cuba joined in organizing the Association of Caribbean States ( ACS ) , a free-trade organisation. The ACS comprises the members of the Caribbean Community and Common Market ( CARICOM ) every bit good as 12 other Cardinal American, South American, and Caribbean states. Government Cuba is governed under a fundamental law adopted in 1976, as later amended. It defines the state as a socialist province in which all power belongs to the working people. The Communist party is Cuba # 8217 ; s lone legal political party. Cardinal Government The cardinal legislative assembly of Cuba is the National Assembly of People # 8217 ; s Power, whose 510 members are elected to five-year footings by direct cosmopolitan vote. The National Assembly, which on a regular basis meets twice during the twelvemonth, elects a Council of State of approximately 30 members to transport out its maps when it is non in session. The Council of State includes a president, who is the state # 8217 ; s caput of province ; a first frailty president ; and five other frailty presidents. The National Assembly besides chooses a Council of Ministers, which is Cuba # 8217 ; s main administrative organic structure. The council is headed by the president. Local Government Cuba is divided into 16 9 municipalities and 14 states ; the Isla de la Juventud municipality is non portion of any state, and its personal businesss are overseen straight by the cardinal authorities. Each municipality has an assembly composed of delegates elected to footings of two and one-half old ages. The municipal assemblies choose executive commissions, the members of which make up five regional assemblies for each state. These regional organic structures besides have executive commissions, which together form the rank of the provincial assembly ( in bend, headed by an executive commission ) . At each degree the executive commission oversees the daily administrative maps of its assembly. Judiciary Judicial power is exercised by the People # 8217 ; s Supreme Court on the national degree, by tribunals of justness in instances that are provincial or regional in nature, and by the municipal tribunals. Revolutionary courts are convened to cover with offenses against the province. Defense The Cuban ground forces is made up of about 145,000 soldiers, and has been mostly equipped by the former USSR. The naval forces, which has a rank of about 13,500 crewmans, operates missile boats and assorted smaller trade. The 15,000-member air force is equipped with Soviet-built aircraft, consisting interceptor, ground-attack, and other first-line trade. Cuba besides possesses Soviet-made surface-to-air and antishipping missiles. Cuba maintains an armed civilian reserves that includes some 1.3 million work forces and adult females. Cuban forces served in several African states during the 1970s and 1980s. History Christopher Columbus landed on the island of Cuba on October 28, 1492, during his initial westbound ocean trip. In award of the girl of Ferdinand V and Isabella I of Spain, his helpers, Columbus named it Juana, the first of several names he in turn applied to the island. It finally became known as Cuba, from its Aboriginal name, Cubanascnan. Colonization by Spain When Columbus foremost landed on Cuba it was inhabited by the Ciboney, a friendly folk related to the Arawak. Colonization of the island began in 1511, when the Spanish soldier Diego Velazquez established the town of Baracoa. Velazquez later founded several other colonies, including Santiago de Cuba in 1514 and Havana in 1515. The Spanish transformed Cuba into a supply base for their expeditions to Mexico and Florida. As a consequence of barbarian intervention and development, the natives became, by the center of the sixteenth century, about nonextant, coercing the settlers to depend on imported black slaves for the operation of the mines and plantations. Despite frequent foraies by pirates and naval units of rival and enemy powers, the island prospered throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. Restrictions imposed by the Spanish governments on commercial activities were by and large disregarded by the settlers, who resorted to illicit trade with privateers and neighbouring settlements. Following the decision of the Seven Years # 8217 ; War in 1763, during which the English captured Havana, the Spanish authorities liberalized its Cuban policy, promoting colonisation, enlargement of commercialism, and development of agribusiness. Between 1774 and 1817 the population increased from about 161,000 to more than 550,000. The staying limitations on trade were officially eliminated in 1818, farther advancing stuff and cultural promotion. During the 1830s, nevertheless, Spanish regulation became progressively inhibitory, arousing a widespread motion among the settlers for independency. This motion attained peculiar impulse between 1834 and 1838, during the despotic governorship of the captain general Miguel de Tacon. Revolts and confederacies against the Spanish government dominated Cuban political life throughout the balance of the century. In 1844 an rebellion of black slaves was viciously suppressed. A motion during the old ages 1848 to 1851 for appropriation of the island to the United States ended with the gaining control and executing of its leader, the Spanish-American general Narciso Lopez. Offers by the U.S. authorities to buy the island were repeatedly rejected by Spain. In 1868 revolutionists under the leading of Carlos Manuel de Cespedes proclaimed Cuban independency. The resulting Ten Years # 8217 ; War, a dearly-won battle to both Spain and Cuba, was terminated in 1878 by a armistice allowing many of im port grants to the Cubans. In 1886 bondage was abolished. Importing of inexpensive labour from China was ended by 1871. In 1893 the equal civil position of inkinesss and Whites was proclaimed. Independence Although certain reforms were inaugurated after the successful rebellion, the Spanish authorities continued to suppress the public. On February 23, 1895, mounting discontent culminated in a recommencement of the Cuban revolution, under the leading of the author and nationalist Jose Marti and General Maximo Gomez y Baez. The U.S. authorities intervened on behalf of the revolutionaries in April 1898, precipitating the Spanish-American War. Intervention was spurred by the sinking of the battlewagon Maine in the seaport of Havana of February 15, 1898, for which Spain was blamed. By the footings of the pact signed December 10, 1898, ending the struggle, Spain relinquished sovereignty over Cuba. An American military authorities ruled the island until May 20, 1902, when the Cuban democracy was officially instituted, under the presidential term of the former postmaster general Tomas Estrada Palma. The Cuban fundamental law, adopted in 1901, incorporated the commissariats of the Platt Amendme nt, U.S. statute law that established conditions for American intercession in Cuba. Certain betterments, notably the obliteration of xanthous febrility, had been accomplished in Cuba during the U.S. business. Simultaneously, U.S. corporate involvements invested to a great extent in the Cuban economic system, geting control of many of its resources, particularly the sugar-growing industry. Popular dissatisfaction with this province of personal businesss was aggravated by repeating cases of fraud and corruptness in Cuban political relations. The first of several serious rebellions against conservative control of the democracy occurred in August 1906. In the following month the U.S. authorities dispatched military personnels to the island, which remained under U.S. control until 1909. Another uprising took topographic point in 1912 in Oriente Province, ensuing once more in U.S. intercession. With the election of Mario Garcia Menocal to the presidential term subsequently in the same twelvemonth, the Conservative party returned to power. On April 7, 1917, Cuba entered Wo rld War I on the side of the Allies. The Batista Regime In March 1952 former president Batista, supported by the ground forces, seized power. Batista suspended the fundamental law, dissolved the Congress, and instituted a probationary authorities, assuring elections the undermentioned twelvemonth. After oppressing an rebellion in Oriente Province led by a immature attorney named Fidel Castro on July 26, 1953, the government seemed secure, and when the political state of affairs had been calmed, the Batista authorities announced that elections would be held in the autumn of 1954. Batista # 8217 ; s opposition, Grau San Martin, withdrew from the run merely before the election, bear downing that his protagonists had been terrorized. Batista was therefore reelected without resistance, and on his startup February 24, 1955, he restored constitutional regulation and granted amnesty to political captives, including Castro. The latter chose expatriate in the United States and subsequently in Mexico. In the mid-1950s the Batista authorities instituted an economic development plan that, together with a stabilisation of the universe sugar monetary value, improved the economic and political mentality in Cuba. On December 2, 1956, nevertheless, Castro, with some 80 insurrectionists, invaded. The force was crushed by the ground forces, but Castro escaped into the mountains, where he organized the 26th of July Movement, so called to mark the 1953 rebellion. For the following twelvemonth Castro # 8217 ; s forces, utilizing guerilla tactics, opposed the Batista authorities and won considerable popular support. On March 17, 1958, Castro called for a general rebellion. His forces made steady additions through the balance of the twelvemonth, and on January 1, 1959, Batista resigned and fled the state. A probationary authorities was established. Castro, although he ab initio renounced office, became prime in mid-February. In the early hebdomads of the government military courts tried many f ormer Batista associates, and some 550 were executed. Cuba Under Castro The Castro government shortly exhibited a left-of-center inclination that worried U.S. involvement in the island. The agricultural reform Torahs promulgated in its first old ages chiefly affected U.S. sugar involvements ; the operation of plantations by companies controlled by non-Cuban shareholders was prohibited, and the Castro government ab initio de-emphasized sugar production in favour of nutrient harvests. When the Castro authorities expropriated an estimated $ 1 billion in U.S.-owned belongingss in 1960, Washington responded by enforcing a trade trade stoppage. A complete interruption in diplomatic dealingss occurred in January 1961, and on April 17 of that twelvemonth U.S.-supported and -trained anti-Castro expatriates landed an invasion force in the Bay of Pigs in southern Cuba. Ninety of the encroachers were killed, and some 1200 were captured ( see Bay of Pigs Invasion ) . The prisoners were ransomed, with the silent assistance of the U.S. authorities, in 1962, at a cost of approximately $ 53 million in nutrient and medical specialties. American-Cuban dealingss grew still more parlous in the autumn of 1962, when the United States discovered Soviet-supplied missile installings in Cuba. U.S. President John F. Kennedy so announced a naval encirclement of the island to forestall farther Soviet cargos of weaponries from making it. After several yearss of dialogues during which atomic war was feared by many to be a possibility, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev agreed, on October 28, to level and take the arms, and this was later accomplished. For the remainder of the 1960s U.S.-Cuban dealingss remained hostile, although, through the cooperation of the Swiss embassy in Cuba, the U.S. and Cuban authoritiess in 1965 agreed to allow Cuban subjects who desired to go forth the island to emigrate to the United States. More than 260,000 people left before the airlift was officially terminated in April 1973. Despite several attempts by Cuba in the United Nations to throw out the United States from its naval base at Guantanamo Bay, leased in 1903, the base continues to be garrisoned by U.S. Marines. In 1980, when Castro temporarily lifted issue limitations, some 125,000 refugees fled to the United States before the escape was once more halted. The U.S. authorities accused Cuba of helping left-of-center Rebels in El Salvador ; another sore point in U.S.-Cuban dealingss was the assistance given by Cuban advisors to the Sandinista authorities in Nicaragua. Several hundred Cuban building workers and military forces were forced to go forth Grenada as a consequence of the U.S.-led invasion of that island in October 1983. Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev visited Havana in April 1989, when the USSR and Cuba signed a 25-year friendly relationship pact, but Castro explicitly rejected the pertinence of Soviet-style political and economic reforms to his state. In July four ground forces officers were executed and 10 others sentenced to prison for smuggling and drug trafficking, in the worst dirt since Castro came to power. With the prostration of the USSR in the early 1990s, Soviet-blockade and trade subsidies to Cuba were ended, and Soviet military forces were bit by bit withdrawn. After the United States tightened its countenances against trade with Cuba, the UN General Assembly in November 1992 approved a declaration naming for an terminal to the U.S. trade stoppage. By 1993, all of the Soviet troops sent to Cuba during the Cuban missile crisis had been withdrawn. Cuba # 8217 ; s sugarcane production dropped to a 30-year depression in 1993 and worsened in 1994, precipitating an economic exigency. As the effects of this hapless output filtered down through the population, greater Numberss of Cubans attempted to fly the state for economic grounds. One such group hijacked a ferry and and attempted to get away, merely to be challenged and sunk by the Cuban Coast Guard. The sinking sparked violent anti-government presentations to which Castro responded by taking issue limitations from those who wished t o go forth for the United States. Already confronting an inflow of refugees from Haiti, the United States countered by stoping automatic refuge to flying Cubans because the United States considered that they were flying economic instead than political conditions. More than 30,000 people were picked up at sea by the U.S. Coast Guard and taken to the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base or to refugee cantonments in Panama. The crisis came to an terminal when the United States agreed to publish 20,000 entry visas each twelvemonth to Cubans wishing to come in the state.